Swaptions

Swaptions as the name implies, are options on swaps which gives the holder the right to enter into an interest rate swap at some later date. The notation for swaptions is similar to FRA's. If there is a 3 x 5 swaption it is an option that matures in 3 years and gives the holder the right to enter into a 2 year swap after expiration. One important thing to understand is the option gives the holder the right to enter into a swap, and it depends upon the discretion of the holder, not a binding commitment. The predetermined fixed rate of the swap (at the time of swaption) is called the strike rate or exercise rate.

Swaptions could be of two types Payer Swaptions and Receiver Swaptions. The former gives the holder the right to enter into a specific swap at some future date as the fixed rate payer and floating rate receiver whereas the latter gives the holder the right to enter into a swap to receive fixed rate and pay floating rate based upon LIBOR. Holder of the Payer swaption (European) exercises if swap fixed rate in the market is greater than the strike rate whereas Holder of the Receiver swaption (European) exercises the option if swap fixed in the market at expiration is less than the strike rate.

Swaptions can be either American, which can be exercised at any time prior to expiration, and European which can only be exercised at expiration. The price of the swaption is the premium which is an amount paid by the buyer to the seller upfront. As options are asymmetrical, this is the only loss which can be borne by the option buyer.

Swaptions could be exercised in many ways. If someone has floating rate debt in some future time he could enter into a payer swaption to lock in the fixed rate. If some one expects the rates to rise in the future and on the other hand some one expects the rates to fall, the former can buy the payer swaption while the latter can buy a receiver swaption. Moreover in order to Terminate an existing Swap one could enter into a swaption. The pay fixed swap could be terminated by exercising a receiver swaption whereas the received fixed swap can be terminated by exercising a payer swaption. A fixed rate payer, for example, on a 5 year swap could buy a 3 x 5 receiver swaption if he would like to terminate swap after 3 years.

The holder of a payer swaption can exercise it in the following ways:
1. The holder can exercise the swaption by paying the predetermined fixed rate.
2. The holder can exercise the swaption and then enter into a swap in the market to receive fixed and pay floating. This will cancel out the floating payments and the holder of the payer swaption will pay fixed and receive fixed. Both the swaps would be with different parties. The credit risk is maximum in this way.
3. The holder can exercise the swaption with offsetting swap netted. This could be done by entering into an offsetting swap with the same party with whom the swaption had been done. In this case the difference of the fixed rate of swaption and the fixed market rate of the new swap will be received by the swaption holder.
4. Cash Settlement. This is the most common way and the holder can receive an up-front cash payment which is equal to the Present value of net payment streams. The discount factors used are based upon the prevailing LIBOR rates at the time when swaption expires.

At expiration the value of the payer swaption is the maximum of zero and the present value of a stream of payments equal to the fixed-rate payments on a current market rate swap minus the fixed-rate payments on the swaption swap. Whereas at expiration the value of the receiver swaption is the maximum of zero and the present value of a stream of payments equal to the fixed-rate payments on the swaption swap minus the fixed-rate payments on a current market rate swap.

Irrespective of the trickiness and complexity related with swaps, they are excellent tools to hedge risk and reduce uncertainty. If we visualize ourselves as actually involved in swaps and hedging risk; we can develop in-depth understandings of such financial instruments. Knowing them and being able to apply them can add real value to our skills and improve our capabilities significantly. 

Getting Started with Derivatives

While expressing his views in 2003, Warren Buffet had referred derivatives as weapons of mass destruction. Since it was exclaimed by Warren Buffet, his words can not be taken for granted. The complexity involved with derivatives make them bear such criticism. A brief introduction of the derivative family was there in Level I but in Level II, they are way more deeper.

Impressively while studying the pricing and valuation of forwards it was revealed that future has nothing to do with the future! Apparently it seems a vague statement but it is hard to believe that its right. As it is a convention that when forward contracts are initiated they are valued zero, the forward price is calculated by multiplying Spot price of the underlying asset with the prevailing risk free interest rates for the required time period. It implies that forward price is the function of spot price and the current, prevailing interest rates. They have nothing to do with the economic conditions or circumstances which shape up future prices. Although these events possess importance in the case of underlying assets which may produce in the coming time like wheat but for financial assets and commodities like precious metals or even currency, the forward price is a combination of spot price and prevailing risk free rates. 

There are certain forward contracts in which the forward price is either less or more than the forward price  computed through the previous discussed method, but these contracts are called off the market forward contracts. At their inception either the long pays the short or the short pays the long depending upon the side with negative value. 

Valuation in Forwards is another interesting area. Usually pricing and valuation are used interchangeably but in forwards the price refers to the future price of the underlying asset agreed today (at time= 0), valuation whereas refers to the value of the contract which is calculated by subtracting the discounted forward price of the asset for the spot price at the time of valuation, during the life of the contract or at expiration. Valuation is done for marking to the market purposes and it is business norm to value the contracts. 

Forwards are done with special conditions and involve counter-party risk. Futures whereas are standardized instruments which are marked to the market on daily basis and the gains and loss are adjusted against the initial margin. Though derivatives are complex financial instruments but the complexities seem to resolve automatically once you start understanding them.

Comparison between IFRS & USGAAP (Level I)

CFA Level-I

Financial Reporting Analysis

FinQuiz.com

Reading 31: Financial Reporting Standards

FRAMEWORK
	U.S. GAAP	IFRS	Similarities
Purpose of Framework	The FASB framework resides lower in hierarchy. Management is not required to prioritize it if no standard is available.	Management is explicitly required to prioritize the IASB framework if there is no standard or interpretation available.	Both the frameworks are similar in their purpose to assist in developing and assisting standards.
Objectives of financial statement	It provides different objectives for business entities versus non business entities.	It gives one objective for different business entities.	Both frameworks have a broad focus to provide relevant information to a wide range of users.
Underlying assumptions	Although it recognizes, but not given much prominence is given to accrual and going concern basis. In fact going concern assumption is not well developed in particular	Give importance to accrual and going concern basis
Qualitative Characteristics	Same characteristics but with a hierarchy ·    Relevance and Reliability are primary qualities. ·    Comparability is the secondary quality. ·    Understandability, treated as user-specific	It has the same characteristics (understandability, comparability, relevance and reliability) but there is no such hierarchy.	The characteristics are same.
Approach	Rules based approach in the past but moving towards adopting object oriented approach	Principles based approach
Financial statement elements (definition, recognition, and measurement)
Performance elements	Elements are revenues, expenses, gains, losses, and comprehensive income.	Revenues and Expenses
Financial Position elements	Asset: a future economic benefit. Term ‘Probable’ is used to define assets and liabilities elements.	Asset: a future economic resource with which future economic benefits are expected ‘Probable’ is a part of the framework recognition criteria.
Recognition of elements	Does not discuss “Probable” for recognition criteria. Has separate criteria based upon “Relevance”	IASB framework requires that it is probable that any future economic benefit to flow to/from the entity.
Measurement of elements	FASB generally prohibits revaluations except for certain categories which must be carried at fair value (discussed in later topics).	Revaluation is usually permitted (discussed in later topics)	Measurement attributes like historical cost, current cost, settlement value, current market value, and present value are broadly consistent.

Reading 32: Components and format of the income statement

	U.S. GAAP	IFRS	Similarities
Revenue Recognition	It specifies that revenue should be recognized when it is “realized or realizable and earned.” 1. There is evidence of an arrangement between buyer and seller. 2. The product has been delivered, or the service has been rendered. 3. The price is determined, or determinable. 4. The seller is reasonably sure of collecting money.	The basic revenue recognition deal with the definition of “earned.” The conditions are: 1. The entity has transferred to the buyer the significant risks and rewards of ownership of the goods; 2. The entity retains neither continuing managerial involvement to the degree usually associated with ownership nor effective control over the goods sold; 3. The amount of revenue can be measured reliably; 4. It is probable that the economic benefits associated with the transaction will flow to the entity; and 5. The costs incurred or to be incurred in respect of the transaction can be measured reliably.
Revenue Recognition (Service)	Does not deal separately	The outcome of service can be estimated reliably, revenue associated with the transaction will be recognized with reference to the stage of completion of the transaction at the balance sheet date. The conditions to measure reliably are: 1. The amount of revenue can be measured reliably; 2. It is probable that the economic benefits associated with the transaction will flow to the entity; 3. The stage of completion of the transaction at the balance sheet date can be measured reliably; and 4. The costs incurred for the transaction and the costs to complete the transaction can be measured reliably.

Long term Contracts	Under U.S. GAAP, a different method is used when the outcome cannot be measured reliably, termed the “completed contract method.” Under the completed contract method, the company does not report any revenue until the contract is finished. Under U.S. GAAP, the completed contract method is also appropriate when the contract is not a long-term contract.	If the outcome of the contract cannot be measured reliably, then revenue is only reported to the extent of contract costs incurred (if it is probable the costs will be recovered). Costs are expensed in the period incurred. Under this method, no profit would be reported until completion of the contract.	IFRS provide that when the outcome of a construction contract can be measured reliably, revenue and expenses should be recognized in reference to the stage of completion. U.S. GAAP has a similar requirement. Under both IFRS and U.S. GAAP, if a loss is expected on the contract, the loss is reported immediately, not upon completion of the contract, regardless of the method used.
Barter	U.S. GAAP states that revenue can be recognized at fair value only if a company has historically received cash payments for such services and can thus use this historical experience as a basis for determining fair value.	Under IFRS, revenue from barter transactions must be measured based on the fair value of revenue from similar non barter transactions with unrelated parties (parties other than the barter partner)
Gross Vs. Net Reporting	To report gross revenues, the following criteria are relevant: 1. The company is the primary obligor under the contract, 2. bears inventory risk and credit risk, 3. can choose its supplier, and 4. has reasonable latitude to establish price. If these criteria are not met, the company should report revenues net
Depreciation Amortization			In most cases IFRS and U.S. GAAP, amortizable intangible assets are amortized using the straight-line method with no residual value.  Goodwill and intangible assets with indefinite life are not amortized. Instead, they are tested at least annually for impairment.
Discontinued Operations			The income statement reports separately the effect of this disposal as a “discontinued” operation under both IFRS and U.S. GAAP.
Extraordinary Items	Under U.S. GAAP, an extraordinary item is one that is both unusual in nature and infrequent in occurrence.	IFRS prohibits classification of any income or expense items as being “extraordinary.”
Earnings Per share	Under U.S. GAAP, equity for which EPS is presented is referred to as common stock or common shares.	Under IFRS, the type of equity for which EPS is presented is ordinary shares.	Both IFRS &U.S. GAAP require the presentation of EPS on the face of the income statement for net profit or loss from continuing operations.

Treasury Stock Method	Under U.S. GAAP, when a company has stock options, warrants, or their equivalents outstanding, the diluted EPS is calculated using the treasury stock method	Under IFRS, requires a similar computation but does not refer to it as the “treasury stock method.”
Comprehensive Income	According to U.S. GAAP, four types of items are treated as other comprehensive income. ·    Foreign currency translation adjustments. ·    Unrealized gains or losses on derivatives contracts accounted for as hedges. ·    Unrealized holding gains and losses on a certain category of available-for-sale securities. ·    Changes in the funded status of a company’s defined benefit post-retirement plans.

Reading 33: UNDERSTANDING THE BALANCE SHEET

	U.S. GAAP	IFRS	Similarities
Balance sheet illustrations	Under U.S. GAAP current assets and current liabilities are shown before long term assets and liabilities respectively. It requires that minority interests be presented on the consolidated balance sheet as a separate component of stock- holders’ equity and labeled separately.  Entity with multiple minority interests may present in aggregate.	Under IFRS the minority section is shown, as required, in the equity section. Noncurrent assets, as common practice are shown before current assets.
Measurement basis			The notes to financial statements and management’s discussion and analysis are integral parts of the U.S. GAAP and IFRS financial reporting processes.
Inventories	LIFO is allowed under U.S. GAAP along with FIFO, specific identification and weighted average	LIFO is not allowed under IFRS whereas FIFO, specific identification and weighted average are allowed

Specifically identifiable intangible assets	U.S. GAAP prohibits the capitalization as an asset of almost all research and development costs. All such costs usually must be expensed. Generally, under U.S. GAAP, acquired intangible assets are reported as separately identifiable intangibles (as opposed to goodwill) if they arise from contractual rights (such as a licensing agreement), other legal rights (such as patents), or have the ability to be separated and sold (such as a customer list).	Under IFRS, specifically identifiable intangible assets are recognized on the balance sheet if it is probable that future economic benefits will flow to the company and the cost of the asset can be measured reliably (externally purchased). IFRS prohibits the capitalization of costs as intangible assets during the research phase. Instead, these costs must be expensed on the income statement. Costs incurred in the development stage can be capitalized as intangible assets if certain criteria are met.	Internally created identifiable intangibles are less likely to be reported on the balance sheet under IFRS or U.S. GAAP rather expensed out
Goodwill			Under both IFRS &U.S. GAAP Goodwill should be capitalized and tested for impairment annually.

Reading 34: understanding the cash flow statement

	U.S. GAAP	IFRS	Similarities
Interests received	Operating cash flow	Operating or Investing cash flow
Interest paid	Operating cash flow	Operating or Financing cash flow
Dividends received	Operating cash flow	Operating or Investing cash flow
Dividends paid	Financing cash flow	Operating or Financing cash flow
Bank overdrafts	Not considered as cash or cash equivalents; classified as financing	Considered part of cash equivalent
Taxes paid	Operating	Generally operating but a portion can be investing or financing if identified separately with these categories
Format of statement	If direct is used reconciliation of NI with Operating cash flow must be provided	No such requirement to provide any reconciliation	Direct or Indirect; Direct is encouraged
Disclosures	If not presented on the cash flow statement, both interest and taxes paid must be disclosed in footnotes	Tax cash flows must be separately disclosed in the cash flow statement
Previous Years Statements	Three years of cash flow statements are provided	Two years of cash flow statements are provided

Reading 35: Financial analysis techniques

	U.S. GAAP	IFRS	Similarities
Segment Reporting	Requirements are similar to IFRS but less detailed. Disclosure of Segment Liabilities is a noticeable omission	IFRS requires the detailed reporting of segments

Reading 36: inventories

	U.S. GAAP	IFRS	Similarities
Cost of Inventories			Under both IFRS and U.S. GAAP the cots to be included in inventories and those needed to be expensed immediately are same.
Inventory Valuation Methods	LIFO is permitted	LIFO is not permitted	Under both IFRS and U.S. GAAP specific identification, weighted average and FIFO are allowed.
Measurement of Inventory Value	Inventories are measured at lower of costs or market where market is the current replacement cost which cannot be greater than NRV and lower than NRV minus Profit margin.	Inventories should be measured at lower of cost and NRV (net releasable value).
Reversal of Write-down	U.S. GAAP prohibits any reversal of write-down.	The amount of any reversal of any write-down of inventory arising from an increase in net realizable value is recognized as a reduction in cost of sales (COGS)
Mark to Market (presenting on fair value)			U.S. GAAP are similar to IFRS in the treatment of inventories of agricultural and forest products and mineral ores. Mark-to-market inventory accounting is allowed for refined bullion of precious metals.
Disclosures	U.S. GAAP require of disclosure of income from LIFO Liquidation and significant estimates related to inventories.	IFRS requires the amount of write down to be disclosed and the circumstances which led to the write down of inventories	Other disclosures are similar.

Changes in inventory valuation method

·    Under U.S. GAAP, a company making a change in inventory valuation method is required to explain why the newly adopted inventory valuation method is superior and preferable to the old method. ·    If a company changes from LIFO to any other method retrospective application is necessary. ·    If a company changes to LIFO method then prospective application is necessary

Under IFRS, a change in accounting policy, also cost formula, is acceptable only if the change results in the financial statements providing ·    reliable ·    more relevant information about the effects of transactions, other events, or conditions on the business financial position, financial performance, or cash flows.

Reading 37: long lived assets

	U.S. GAAP	IFRS	Similarities
Acquisition of Long lived Assets	U.S. GAAP does not net the interests.	Under IFRS, income earned on temporarily investing the borrowed monies decreases the amount of borrowing costs eligible for capitalization.
Intangible assets developed internally	U.S. GAAP requires both research and development costs to be expensed except for software development	Under IFRS the research cost is expensed whereas the development cost is capitalized as an intangible asset	The treatment of software development costs under U.S. GAAP is similar to the treatment of all costs of internally developed intangible assets under IFRS.
Intangible assets acquired in a Business Combination	Under U.S. GAAP, there are two criteria to judge whether an intangible asset acquired in a business combination should be recognized separately from goodwill: ·    The asset must be either an item arising from contractual legal rights ·    An item that can be separated from the acquired company	Under IFRS, the acquired individual assets include identifiable intangible assets that meet the definitional and recognition criteria. If it doesn’t then it will be recorded as goodwill
Depreciation/Amortization. of Long lived assets	U.S. GAAP requires the cost model of reporting for long lived assets	The cost model is permitted under IFRS
Revaluation method	U.S. GAAP do not permit the use of revaluation method	IFRS permits the revaluation method
Reviewing estimates	U.S. GAAP does not require companies to review their estimates affecting depreciation expense annually	IFRS requires companies to review these estimates annually
Component Method	Under U.S. GAAP the component method is allowed but is seldom used	IFRS requires companies to use component method of depreciation

Impairment of Assets	Reversal is not permitted under U.S. GAAP	Reversal is permitted under IFRS	Both IFRS and U.S. GAAP require companies to write down the carrying amount of impaired assets.
Impairment Test	Under U.S. GAAP an asset’s carrying amount is considered not recoverable when it exceeds the undiscounted expected future cash flows. The impairment loss is then measured as the difference between the asset’s fair value and carrying amount.	IFRS defines the recoverable amount as the higher of its fair value less costs to sell and its ‘value in use’ where ‘value in use’ is a discounted measure of expected future cash flows
Reversal of Impairment	Under U.S. GAAP, once an impairment loss has been recognized for assets held for use, it cannot be reversed. For assets held for sale, if the fair value increases after an impairment loss, the loss can be reversed.	IFRS permit impairment losses to be reversed if the recoverable amount of an asset increases regardless of whether the asset is classified as held for use or held for sale. IFRS do not permit the revaluation to the recoverable amount if the recoverable amount exceeds the previous carrying amount
Disclosures (Tangible Asset Class)	Under U.S. GAAP the requirements are less exhaustive. Disclosure includes: ·    Period’s depreciation expense ·    Balance of major classes of depreciable assets ·    Accumulated depreciation by major class or in total ·    General description of the depreciation method	Under IFRS for each class of PP&E a company should disclose ·    Measurement base ·    Depreciation method ·    Useful life used ·    Gross carrying amount ·    Accumulated depreciation at the beginning of each period ·    Restriction or title and pledge ·    Contractual agreement to acquire PP&E If revaluation model used then: ·    Date of revaluation ·    How fair value was obtained ·    Carrying amount under the cost model ·    Revaluation surplus (if any)

Disclosures (Intangible asset class)	Under U.S. GAAP companies are required to disclose: ·    Gross carrying amount ·    Accumulated amortization by asset class ·    Aggregate amortization expense for the period ·    Estimated amortized expense for the next 5 years	Under IFRS a company must disclose ·    Asset class is having finite or infinite life ·    If finite the company must disclose useful life ·    The amortization method used ·    The gross carrying value ·    Accumulated Amortization at beginning of each period ·    Reconciliation of carrying amount at the beginning and end of each period For indefinite life ·    Carrying amount & why it is considered with indefinite life Revaluation model disclosures are same if used
Disclosures (Impairment losses)	Under U.S. GAAP ·    Description of the impaired asset ·    Why impairment was done ·    Method of determining fair value ·    Amount of impairment loss ·    Where the loss is recognized on financial statements	Under IFRS ·    The amount of impairment loss ·    Reversal of impairment losses ·    Where they are recognized on financial statements ·    Main classes affected by impairment loss and reversal ·    Main events and circumstances leading to impairment loss and reversal.

Reading 38: income taxes

	U.S. GAAP	IFRS	Similarities
Deferred Tax Assets and Liabilities	Under U.S. GAAP deferred tax assets and liabilities are classified as current and noncurrent based on the classification of asset or liability	Under IFRS deferred tax assets and liabilities are always classified as noncurrent.
Economic Benefit does not match	Under U.S. GAAP a valuation allowance is established if deferred tax asset or liability resulted in past but the criteria of economic benefit does not match with current balance sheet	Under IFRS an existing deferred tax asset of liability related to the item will be reversed if it resulted in past but the criteria of economic benefit does not match with current balance sheet

Tax Base of a Liability	Under U.S. GAAP the tax legislation within the jurisdiction will determine the amount recognized on the income statement and whether the liability (revenue received in advance) will have a tax base greater than zero. This will depend on how tax legislation recognizes revenue received in advance.	IFRS offers specific guidelines with regard to revenue received in advance. It states the tax base is the carrying amount less any amount of the revenue that will not be taxed at a future date.	The analysis of the tax base results in similar outcome
Differences between Taxable & Accounting Profit	Under U.S. GAAP a deferred tax asset or liability is not recognized for unamortizable goodwill. There is no exemption for the initial recognition of asset or liability in transaction that ·    Is not a business combination ·    Affect nor accounting or taxable profit	Under IFRS, a deferred tax account is not recognized for goodwill arising in a business combination. Since goodwill is a residual, the recognition of a deferred tax liability would increase the carrying amount of goodwill. There is an exemption for initial recognition of asset or liability in transactions stated before	IFRS and U.S. GAAP both prescribe balance sheet liability method for recognition of deferred tax
Deductable Temporary Difference			Under IFRS and U.S. GAAP, any deferred tax assets that arise from investments in subsidiaries, branches, associates, and interests in joint ventures are recognized as a deferred tax asset. They both allow the creation of deferred tax asset in the case of tax losses and credits
Recognition of Tax Charged directory to Equity	Revaluations are not permissible under U.S. GAAP		Charged Directly to Equity In general, IFRS and U.S. GAAP require that the recognition of deferred tax liabilities and current income tax should be treated similarly to the asset or liability that gave rise to the deferred tax liability or income tax based on accounting treatment.

Reading 39: non-current liabilites

	U.S. GAAP	IFRS	Similarities
Bond Issuance	Under U.S. GAAP the issuance cost is recognized as an asset and amortized on straight line basis over the life of the bond	Under IFRS all issuance costs are included in the measurement of liability, bonds payable, and netted.	Under both U.S. GAAP and IFRS the issuance costs are included in cash outflow from financing activities and usually netted against bonds proceeds
Accounting Method for bond issuance	Under U.S. GAAP the effective interest method is preferred	Under IFRS the effective interest method is required
Reporting of Interest Payments	It is reported as operating cash outflow	Could be either report as operating or financing cash outflow

Reporting Option			IFRS and U.S. GAAP require fair value disclosures in the financial statements unless the carrying amount approximates fair value or the fair value cannot be reliably measured.
De-recognition of Debt	The debt issuance costs are accounted for separately from bonds payable. Any unamortized debt issuance costs must be written off at the time of redemption and included in the gain or loss on debt extinguishment.	The issuance cost are a part of the liability thus part of the carrying amount
Lease terminology	Capital lease is the terminology	Finance lease is the terminology
Classification as Finance/ Capital Lease	Though the principle is same but provisions are more specific ·    Ownership of the lease to be transferred at the end of the lease ·    Lease contains an option to purchase the asset at cheaply, bargain price option ·    Lease term 75 percent or more of the useful life of the asset ·    Present value of lease payments to be a least 90 percent of the fair value Lessee requires one of these criteria to consider lease as capital whereas Lessor requires at least one of the criteria plus meeting the reasonable assurance for getting the cash and performed substantially under the lease to record as capital lease.	·    Ownership is transferred to the lessee by the end of the lease term ·    Option to purchase the asset at price sufficiently less than the fair price ·    Lease term extended to major part of economic life of the asset, even the title is not transferred ·    At inception the present value of minimum lease payments be equal to the fair value of the asset ·    Asset can only be used by lessee unless major modifications are made Generally is all the risks and rewards associated with the asset are transferred, both the lessee and the lessor record finance lease
Interest portion of lease payment	U.S. GAAP consider the interest portion of lease payment as an outflow from operating activity	Either operating of financing cash outflow under IFRS for interest portion of the lease payment
Reporting by the Lessor	From lessor’s perspective there are two types of lease ·    Direct Financing: When present value of the lease  payments equals the carrying amount of the asset ·    Sales-type: When present value exceeds the carrying amount of the asset	Under IFRS there is no such classification but treatment is available when manufacturer is also the lessor.	Under IFRS and U.S. GAAP, if a lessor enters into an operating lease, the lessor records any lease revenue when earned. The lessor also continues to report the leased asset on the balance sheet and the asset’s associated depreciation expense on the income statement.
Actuarial gains/losses& Prior Service Costs			Both IFRS and U.S. GAAP allow the companies to smooth the effect of these two items over time

Net Pension Obligation

Under U.S. GAAP companies are required to measure the net pension obligation (asset) as pension obligation less plan assets.

Under IFRS companies can choose to measure net pension obligation. Companies alternatively can choose to exclude the unrecognized smoothed amounts resulted from actuarial gains/losses or prior service costs

Reading 43: international standard convergence

	U.S. GAAP	IFRS	Similarities
Long-Term Investments	U.S. GAAP requires the use of equity method for accounting interests in equity method U.S. GAAP uses a dual model based on voting control and economic control in accounting for investment in another area	IFRS permits the use of proportionate or equity method in joint ventures. IFRS uses voting control method to determine need for consolidation in accounting for investment in another area